The coastal areas of Northern and Western Estonia had close overseas contacts with Scandinavia and Finland, while inland Southern Estonia had more contacts with Balts and Pskov. [36] The landscape of Ancient Estonia featured numerous hillforts. [37] Prehistoric or medieval harbour sites have been found on the coast of Saaremaa. [37] Estonia also has a number of graves from the Viking Age, both individual and collective, with weapons and jewellery including types found commonly throughout Northern Europe and Scandinavia.
[207] The Supreme Court is the court of cassation, and also conducts constitutional review, it has 19 members. [208] The judiciary is independent, judges are appointed for life, and can be removed from office only when convicted by court for a criminal deed. [209] The Estonian justice system has been rated among the most efficient in the European Union by the EU Justice Scoreboard. [210] Foreign relations[edit] Estonia was a member of the League of Nations from 22 September 1921, and became a member of the United Nations on 17 September 1991. [211][212] Since restoration of independence Estonia has pursued close relations with the Western countries, and has been member of NATO since 29 March 2004, as well as the European Union since 1 May 2004.
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[65] Danish Saaremaa was transferred to Sweden in 1645. [66] The wars had halved the population of Estonia from about 250–270, 000 people in the mid 16th century to 115–120, 000 in the 1630s. [67] While many peasants remained in the status of serfdom during the Swedish rule, legal reforms strengthened both serfs' and free tenant farmers' land usage and inheritance rights – hence this period got the reputation of "The Good Old Swedish Time" in people's historical memory. [68] Swedish King Gustaf II Adolf established gymnasiums in Reval and Dorpat; the latter was upgraded to Tartu University in 1632.
^ Calvert, Peter (1987). The Process of Political Succession. Springer. p. 67. ISBN 9781349089789. ^ Calvert, Peter (1987). ISBN 9781349089789. ^ Kasekamp, Andres (2000). The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia. ISBN 9781403919557. ^ Pinder, David (1990). Western Europe: Challenge and Change. p. 75. ISBN 9781576078006. ^ a b Pinder, David (1990). p. 76. ISBN 9781576078006.
^ Kasekamp, Andres (2000). ISBN 9781403919557. ^ Kasekamp, Andres (2000). p. 11. ISBN 9781403919557. ^ Miljan, Toivo (2015). pp. 80–81. ISBN 9780810875135. ^ Raun, Toivo U. Estonia and the Estonians: Second edition, updated. p. 128. ISBN 9780817928537. ^ Leonard, Raymond W. (1999). Secret Soldiers of the Revolution: Soviet Military Intelligence, 1918–1933. pp. 34–36. ISBN 9780313309908. ^ Bell, Imogen (2002). Central and South-Eastern Europe 2003.
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Retrieved 27 December 2016. ^ Mäesalu, Ain (2012). "Could Kedipiv in East-Slavonic Chronicles be Keava hill fort? " (PDF). Estonian Journal of Archaeology. 1 (16supplser): 199. doi:10. 3176/arch. 2012. supv1. 11. Retrieved 27 December 2016. ^ Kasekamp, Andres (2010). p. 9. ISBN 9780230364509. ^ Raun, Toivo U. (2002). Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated.
It is very traditional food in the southern part of Estonia. [416] Historically, the cuisine of Estonia has been dependent on seasons and the simple food from the local farms and the sea. Today, it also includes many "global" foods. The most typical foods in modern Estonia are black bread, pork, potatoes, and dairy products. [417] Traditionally in summer and spring, Estonians like to eat everything fresh – berries, herbs, vegetables, and everything else that comes straight from the garden. Hunting and fishing have also been very common, although currently hunting and fishing are enjoyed mostly as hobbies.
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25. ISBN 9780313323553. ^ Raun, Toivo U. ISBN 9780817928537. ^ a b Raun, Toivo U. ISBN 9780817928537. ^ Stone, David R. A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya. pp. 14–18. ISBN 9780275985028. ^ Raun, Toivo U. pp. 28–29. ISBN 9780817928537. ^ Raun, Toivo U. ISBN 9780817928537. ^ Williams, Nicola; Herrmann, Debra; Kemp, Cathryn (2003). Estonia, Latvia & Lithuania. University of Michigan. p. 190. ISBN 1-74059-132-1. ^ Frost, Robert I. p. 77. ISBN 9781317898573. ^ Raukas, Anto (2002).
p. 283. ISBN 9985701151. ^ Raun, Toivo U. pp. 32–33. p. 33. p. 34. ISBN 9780817928537. ^ "The Baltic States from 1914 to 1923 By LtCol Andrew Parrott" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 March 2009. ^ Raun, Toivo U. p. 38. p. 41. pp. 47–49. p. 286. ISBN 9985701151. ^ Subrenat, Jean-Jacques (2004). p. 90. ISBN 9042008903. ^ a b c Raun, Toivo U. p. 59. ISBN 9780817928537. ^ a b Raukas, Anto (2002). p.
Psychology Press. p. 244. ISBN 9781857431360. ^ Smith, David (2013). p. 18. ISBN 9781136452130. ^ Misiunas, Romuald J. ; Taagepera, Rein (1983). The Baltic States, Years of Dependence, 1940–1980. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520046252. ^ Smith, David (2013). pp. 19–20. ISBN 9781136452130. ^ Smith, David (2013). p. 21.
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In addition, Youth Song Festivals are also held every four or five years, the latest taking place in 2017. [390] Professional Estonian musicians and composers such as Aleksander Eduard Thomson, Rudolf Tobias, Miina Härma, Mart Saar, Artur Kapp, Juhan Aavik, Aleksander Kunileid, Artur Lemba and Heino Eller emerged in the late 19th century. Currently, the most well-known Estonian composers are Arvo Pärt, Eduard Tubin, and Veljo Tormis. [391] In 2014, Arvo Pärt was the world's most performed living composer for the fourth year in a row. [392] In the 1950s, Estonian baritone Georg Ots rose to worldwide prominence as an opera singer.
g. Narva). Russian is spoken as a secondary language by forty- to seventy-year-old ethnic Estonians, because Russian was the unofficial language of the Estonian SSR from 1944 to 1990 and was taught as a compulsory second language during the Soviet era. In the period between 1990 and 1995, the Russian language was granted an official special status according to Estonian language laws. [360] In 1995 it lost its official status. In 1998, most first- and second-generation industrial immigrants from the former Soviet Union (mainly the Russian SFSR) did not speak Estonian.
287. p. 93. pp. 90–91. p. 91. ISBN 9042008903. ^ a b Cultural Policy in Estonia. Council of Europe. 1997. ISBN 9789287131652. ^ Raukas, Anto (2002). p. 291. ISBN 9985701151. ^ Smith, David (2013). Estonia: Independence and European Integration. ISBN 9781136452130. ^ Raukas, Anto (2002). p. 292. ISBN 9985701151.
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